The Modern World, Part One: Global History from 1760 to 1910 -- Week 3 Video Lecture Summary

Video 1: Lucky Americans

In this video we'll discuss the implications of the revolutions in the Atlantic World on the rest of the world.

The British, the Spanish and the French in the 1790s

Early 1790s: The war of the First Coalition

1796 - 1801: The war of the Second Coalition in France. During this period Spain rules over most of North and South America. Brazil was occupied by Brazil. The West Indies were occupied by France, England and Spain. The French West Indies was experiencing a slave revolt which deprived them of the goods of that region.

The Spanish hold over its colonies was considered weak during this period. By the 1790s Charles 4 was the monarch of Spain. Manuel Godoy became a lover of the Queen, and Charles the king allowed himself to be influenced by Godoy.

The British saw an opportunity to make a move against France: they attacked Saint Domingue from their colony in Jamaica. They also tried to conquer Buenos Aires. Both attempts failed. Frustrated by their failures in the West, the British will divert their attention to the East.

Bonaparte's attempts to conquer North America and the West Indies

 In the 1790s Bonaparte failed to create a French holding in the Middle East, and also their holding on India was failing. He tried developing an ambitious plan to recover control in the West Indies and North America:

1. Make peace with England -> this would allow him to move freely through Europe and launch ships from England // 1801-1802 He achieves peace with Austria and Britain
2. Make a secret deal with Spain to return Louisiana to France // 1802 he gives Spain land in Italy for Louisiana
3. Organize an expedition force to occupy Louisiana and the key port of New Orleans // He does this in 1802-1803, and the United States are alarmed because Louisiana is the South end of the Mississippi and all goods have to be shipped by water. Goods that originated along the Mississippi had to be shipped down the river, around the US via the Atlantic, and back to the East Coast to be shipped back inland or overseas from there. New Orleans, therefore, was a key holding, and French control there meant that essentially France controlled their fate. They couldn't fight back even if they wanted: their army was too weak.

1802-1803 was a pivotal year for Bonaparte. That year he also tried to restore slavery to Haiti (then Saint Domingue) and failed. He betrayed their leader after promising him participation in French leadership and then announced he wanted to restore slavery there. There was a bloody passionate fight. Polish soldiers fought alongside the French because they supported the French cause and had hoped that France would help liberate Poland.

The French lost the battle in St. Domingue.

Napoleon was faced with a decision: build an empire in North America or go back to Europe. Napoleon chose to focus on Europe and sold Louisiana to the Americans (The Louisiana Purchase). This was preferable to Napoleon than selling the region back to Spain, with which France's relationship had soured after the initial Louisiana negotiations. Napoleon disliked Godoy. And the Brits weren't on good terms with France either.

Once the US had Louisiana, the population started looking inland rather than towards the Atlantic for trade and livelihood purposes, and started gradually settling the west, populating the continent densely East of the river but also starting to spread to its West.

Video 2: Napoleonic Wars

Napoleon is trying to inject more glory into France and recover the old regime but with a new set of values. Painters like Jacques-Louis David painted him in a very positive light as a general and also an emperor. In a David painting, Napoleon is shown with the Pope looking on approvingly, symbolizing harmony between state and church, which was missing in the first revolution.

Napoleon is regarded as a lawgiver, liberator and creator of a new France. Napoleon is creating a new aristocracy: one that's merit-based. Anyone can be elevated as long as they serve France.

By 1805, Napoleon's lost his struggle at sea but won on land. He establishes a Polish state and in general conquers most of Europe.

His fall comes in 1814. He is forced to abdicate in Paris and he is exiled but comes back and is defeated again, finally, at the battle of Waterloo.

Whereas French artists from the Napoleonic era glorified Napoleon, Spanish artists like Goya depicted the horrors, violence, and suffering of French-ruled Spain.

After Napoleon's defeat, the power dynamics in Europe shift again. France is restored to older borders. The Prussian state is greatly expanded, and the Austrian empire grows too, replacing what were previously Habsburg domains. The recently-created Polish state is destroyed again. In the decade or so that followed, a "Holy Alliance" is formed by the victorious states. The members of this alliance were anti-republican and anti-revolutionary and pro-Christian. They worked to restore monarchic principles. However, the unrest of the revolutions continued, with riots breaking out and tensions rising between conservativism and liberalism.

Video 3: The End of Spanish America

In 1808, Spain has holdings in North America. That year, Napoleon beats Spain and installs his brother as the new king of Spain. The previous king, Ferdinand the 7th is in prison. Who should the colonies follow? No king was very dominant, and the colonies pretty much had to figure out how to run themselves.

Just like the Americans in the 1760s, Spanish colonies now feel oppressed by trading restrictions. This is a source of tension because they know what happened with British America.

Ethnic identities also factor into nationality thinking in New Spain:

• Pensinsulares are Spanish people from Spain who migrated to the colonies to rule them (fewer than 1% of the population)
• Creoles are people of pure European ancestry (20% of the population)
• Mestizos (mixed with Native Americans) /mulattoes (mixed with Africans) (40% of the population)
• Indians/blacks (40%)
• The exact numbers varied from colony to colony.

Ancestry is a key criterion for who can be admitted to the Elite. Only individuals of pure blood, for instance, could become lawyers. Interestingly, with enough money, you could buy a certificate of purity.

The Creole elite had the support of the previous king and was the dominant, oppressive class in the Spanish colonies.

Colonies had to decide whether to revolt or not against colonial rule. Some decided to revolt and some stayed loyal. Cuba decides to stay loyal because they need Spanish soldiers to keep the peace; they're afraid of a slave revolt like the one in St. Domingue. But in all the other colonies, the common people (everyone who wasn't Creole) saw the monarchy shift in Spain as a chance to overthrow the Creole rule and side with the new king. So they revolt. 

In New Mexico, the rebels declare their love for the new king. But in 1814 Napoleon is overthrown and the old monarchy is restored. There's a second wave of revolts a few years later when Spain undergoes another change towards liberalism, in 1821-1822. This time in Mexico, the Creole conservative elite revolts against the liberals in Spain. Augustine Iturbidet is their leader and proclaims himself the Emperor of New Mexico. 

However, in South America there is a different dynamic. The French and the Holy Alliance invades Spain. The liberal Creole elite who is fed up with Spanish rule reaches out to the generals who are common people and create an alliance with them. This alliance fights against the Spanish crown.

In Venezuela, Simon Bolivar is a member of the Creole elite. He is a leader of both waves of revolutions. Bolivar with Jose San Martin strives to liberate the South American continent. He liberates chile and continues on to Peru.

The Holy Alliance is worried about this movement in South America. Between 1822-24 the European monarchs consider helping Spain beat back this liberal movement. They end up not intervening and the continent gets its independence.

Bolivar had a dream that South America would join the United States but it doesn't pan out. But there is a sense of "hemispheric solidarity". Individually, each domain will fashion a new identity.

Video 4: New Republics and Empires in the Americas

What new states will replace Spanish American holdings? Most times, states become authoritarian elites ruled by Creoles (they have to be authoritarian to control a "common" minority). Several countries consider uniting but don't. A Mexican empire ends up ruling most of Latin America. A painting by Diego Rivera depicts the cycle of revolution and defeat with the hope of the victory of liberty.

Federalists: local power of multiple political units. Versus Centralists: people who want the power to be held in one place.

In 1821, Mexico gains independence. Most of the population is populated by what is now Mexico. Northern Mexico (today's Texas and the American New Mexico I believe) was settled mostly by Native Americans. Federalists bring in American settlers to try to establish settlements in these areas to fight against the Centralist cause. They fight with the Mexican locals, and Americans win in the Texas region. They want the US to annex them but for a decade the US doesn't want to because the Union was already hard enough to manage as it was. Then the Americans elect Polk who is interested in expanding towards the Pacific and more regions in the West are annexed to the US, and also Texas.

Video 5: The Tipping Point -- India

The period between 1799-1805 is a critical phase for India. There are pivotal battles in 1802-03. The British holdings are colored pink:

The Hindu rulers of the Marathas dominate most of India. Another power dominating South India is the Muslim sultan of Mysore. The British are one of several powers in India. All of these powers pay fees to the Indian emperor. The Brits do so in exchange for the right to collect taxes. They have several significant weaknesses: the East India Company is still the one running the show and they're interested in self-enrichment; there's widespread poverty in their region; and they're detested by the locals. The Marathas are local and traditional and respected; however, they don't have a lot of money or access to foreign trade. Everyone has "increasingly Europized militaries" containing guns, and no one has a military advantage.

To deal with this situation, London appoints Governors-General to oversee the different regions in India. The East India Company no longer runs amok, and instead, order is instilled in terms of finances, property rights, and a legal system (A rule of law, especially in Bengal). The British can now funnel funds to their holdings in India and they do.

They battle their main opponents, the Marathas. In 1799, the British kill the Sultan of Mysore and establish power in Southern India. In 1802-03 the British barely win as they beat the Marathas. The Marathas were defeated not thanks to the size of the army but rather thanks to financial strength. They bought out local rulers. In addition, the Marathas fought among themselves. Some of them joined the Brits once defeated.

Richard Wellesley was Governor-General during this time. He wasn't given explicit instructions to wage war in India but he did what he thought was appropriate to defend the British holdings. His brother the Duke of Wellington led many key battles. In the 1700s the Brits made deliberate attempts to expand the empire, but they failed, and now here they succeed. In doing so they upend the Muslim culture of the area, as well as local Hindu traditions.

This creates a new order of affairs: they have a very strong military base (comprised mostly of locals) and a production base in India. They easily persuade local rulers to surrender. Many Indians are upset but for some, it opens new opportunities. One example is Ram Mohun Roy of Bengal. He was interested in fusing the cultures. He had good things to say about the new regime like culture and more enlightened political institutions but noted that they're discriminating against the weaker social classes.

Video 6: The World of 1830

In 1830 Europe, there's a strong renewal of the importance of tradition: devotion to ceremonies and rituals, a yearning for peace. Also Christianity rose, including Protestantism, Catholicism, and Piotism: a mystical Christianity that believed that the wars signaled the coming of the messiah.

Nationalism was also on the rise, with people seeking to recover customs and cultural artefacts. The Germans, for instance, compile collections of folklore stories. Romanticism is heralded in music and art. For instance Beethoven's music employed lyrical music written by the German poet Schiller. Beethoven attempted to catch the spirit of the times in his piece Fur Elise. This poem exalts the values of brotherhood. Another example is Sir Walter Scott's works, who was widely read during this period. He is also about recovering English traditions, including his novel Ivanhoe. 

Ironworking was on the rise and replaced wood. Economic liberalism was also on the rise. This meant people were more open to experimentation and private business rather than centralism on the government's part. This included thinking that outlawed slavery in Britain. Adam Smith's "An inquiry into nature and causes of the wealth of nations" is a hallmark work that emphasizes free trade (free of monopolies). This economic liberalism is accompanied by political liberalism, which was about exploring new political structures. Jeremy Bentham was one leading PL thinker. He was a problem solver and practical philosopher rather than a revolutionary. Similarly, Benjamin Constant strove to find a consensus that could work for many people between royalism and revolutionaries.

Modern forces were making their influences known. Increasingly, traditions experienced pressure from reformers in Europe. In the East, there were tensions between the classical traditions whereby skill was measured by knowledge of canonical texts (Koran, Confuscious) and outside influences. 

Pax Britannica: British Peace. This doesn't mean absolute peace but rather oceanic peace, relative peace to the period of wars that preceded.