The Modern World, Part One: Global History from 1760 to 1910 -- Week 5 Video Lecture Summary

Video 1: To Build a Nation

In the traditional world, nation states didn't exist. Instead, life was very local and people didn't travel far. People based their identities on their family, the crops they grew and their local communities and languages. Many of these languages no longer exist. There may have been a distant lord that owned their lands, but that was the only connection to the outside world.

In the mid-1800s, communities started breaking apart when people began migrating to the cities for jobs. Everywhere an enlarged sense of community began emerging because news traveled faster thanks to technological advances. People began asking what they had in common, and the answer was the nation. Some aspects of national culture and language arose naturally but there were also deliberate efforts to create a national identity.

The above painting depicts lots of different nations together each flying their own flag. The hope was that rather than different princes bickering over territories, the organization of people into nations would ensure that individual nations' preferences were being accounted for and there would be peace.

The natural rivals of nation-states are religious institutions because they were the previous community hub. This was called Kulturkampf in Germany. There were disagreements regarding state vs. Church involvement of education: universities and public schools. Public schools started to be built by the state in the 1800s. Up until then education was accessible to affluent people or provided by the state. States had a stake in education: it was a way to encourage good citizenship.

The growth of the press is another important phenomenon. The ability to learn about current events hundreds of miles away contributed to bringing people together and creating a common destiny. Newspapers were run by various political parties.

Mail, including newspapers, also began to be distributed in this period. England publishes the first mass-circulation newspaper. Rather than national and world news, the front page was filled with local events, and national and world news belonged in the inner pages.

New national service positions opened up: postmen; government officials posted abroad; and teachers responsible for training future citizens. Uniforms started to be worn to identify individuals as servants of the nation. The European uniform fashion spread far and wide, being mimicked and adopted by the Ottoman Empire and Japan upon others.

Mazzini and other nationalist writers call for the Italian nation and other nations to come together because the coming together serves a higher, nobler purpose. Each nation has different reasons to come together, but the call to come together becomes a hallmark of progress. Nationalism was associated with progress, and progress was valued.

Debates ensue about the essence of various nations.

There are attempts to gather multiple nations under confederations:

• Modern-day Italy is divided into parts and ruled by different powers. In the 1860s this changes. Piedmont, a kingdom in (modern-day) Northern Italy led by Count Cavour, wins the province of Lombardy after allying with France against Austria. Guiseppe Garibaldi is another main figure in Italy. He's a revolutionary striving to take down reactionary monarchies together with other children of aristocrats. They manage to take over all of the Italian peninsula and the new Kingdom of Italy is created in 1870.
• In Germany, the notion of a German nation is gathering strength. The Kingdom of Prussia leads a series of campaigns to create a unified German state. They win wars against Denmark, lose a war against Austro-Hungary, and start a war with France, their ancient enemy. They unite against this ancient enemy led by Napoleon III and they win. In France, a new republic is made. The Germans announce an empire and the king of Prussia, the strongest state, becomes the Kaiser of the German Empire.

Europe in 1560 (pre-1850s)

Europe in 1870:

Looking at the maps, we can see how Europe's state lines have changed due to the creation of nation-states.

Simultaneously in the US, a "compound republic" existed where each state was independent within the republic. Some of the states allowed slavery and some forbade it. The slave states secede from the Union because they disagreed with the notion that slavery shouldn't spread further (because that would discount the legitimacy of slavery). Would the union remain united? There's a civil war. The American republic is the largest experiment in a republic union. People who were pro-republics rooted for the US, whereas people who were anti-republics or concerned about the increasing power of the US were anti-US. 

Global forces play a part in the American civil war. The American South considers itself the world's foremost grower of cotton. They believe that if they secede their economic future will be assured because the world won't stop buying their cotton. But actually, England quickly gets cotton growing elsewhere. The spread of global ideas also feeds the Civil War (tension about the plausibility of nation-state republics),

Video 2: The Global and the Local

How do global forces interact with local situations?

The world is becoming more tightly linked thanks to advances in transportation. But things still move relatively slowly. Local people are making key decisions for instance representatives of a European power in a colony. Communication is slow so there may be a decree and then the local representative will enact their power one way and after some time they may receive communication to change course.

Some historians regard the period between 1850-1870 as the imperial period. And there is imperialism going on: France, under the reign of Napoleon III, tries to expand the empire in North America. But Prof doesn't think this label does the period justice; the period is characterized more by individuals stationed away from home, representing their home powers and having to make local decisions ("the man on the spot"). The locals had to respond to these European decisions. They could view the decision as a threat, or as providing an opportunity for alliances or partnerships. Some examples: 

In China, there were go-betweens called compradors that mediated between foreigners and Chinese locals for trade purposes.

Australia is expanding, to New Zealand among others. The Maoris (NZ natives) aren't happy with the British presence and they fight fierce wars in the 1840s. The British establish a presence there but Maori influence is still strong today.

The King and I is a movie set in this period -- the 1850s (based on the book Anna and the King of Siam). A strong European influence. Siam was the only country in Southeast Asia to maintain the autonomy of its kingdom.

By the 1850s in India, the British have established a huge conglomerate with lots of Indian commercial partners. There's also an Indian British-led and British-trained army. The British imperial forces rely on Indians, and the alliance becomes strained in what is known "The Indian Mutiny". It begins with some of the Indian soldiers rebelling against the British.

Parts of India are controlled by the British state, some by the East India Company, and some by local Indian princes. The mutiny begins in a certain part of India, and causes a civil war, with some locals siding with the British and some against them. A major battle is fought in Lucknow. Many paintings depict the garb of the locals as partly Westernized, partly localized Muslim or Hindu. It is a brutal period with many brutal deaths. The East India company becomes obsolete and in the 1850s the civil war is settled with the British establishing dominance, with both Indians and British people staffing the outposts.

In China, the Qing dynasty has a new emperor: Xianfeng. In the 1840s and 50s, there was a lot of fighting and the British established outposts in China. The Chinese had long been isolated but now foreign influences are penetrating. Net incomes are declining and the Malthusian principal wreaks misery. New ideas are penetrating. Hong Xiuquan fuses Christian ideas with Chinese ideas and harnesses this fusion to revolt against the Chinese status quo. Men stop wearing their hair in a way that shows subservience to the Empire. This evolves into the Taiping rebellion, and it is prevalent in regions that contain foreign outposts. 

In 1861, the British burn the imperial palace. The emperor dies and the empire is taken over by Ye, the Dowager Empress. The Empire cuts a deal with foreign forces to defeat the rebellion. When they come out of the rebellion, a period called the Self-Strengthening ensues.

In Japan, the Tokugawas are overthrown and replaced by a new emperor, Meiji. The uniform and hairstyle he is wearing (and his soldiers) in paintings are reminiscent of the European style. Meiji wants to propagate Western ideas and propagate a nation-state. He is helped by many European sources. But many Japanese are resentful. An interesting example of cultural fusion is Fukuzawa Yukichi is fascinated by Western ways and is determined to adapt to Western traditions but also bridge the traditional cultural gap. In this period, we see lots of influences from the West like sewing machines and western clothes, railroads, but built and designed in the Japanese style. Japan becomes modernized very quickly.

Another example of civil war is the American Civil War. Can the Union work? Will the modernization of the North beat the traditional ways of the South? The defeat of slavery and triumph of the union are another way in which nationalism wins out in the 1800s.

Video 3: The Zenith of Liberalism

What did liberalism mean in the 1860s? It was about the open-minded pursuit of progress. Things are constantly changing: industry, science, politics. One symbol of this is the triumph of the Union in the American Civil War (ACW).

During the ACW, the Union tried to limit a lot of the waterway traffic to impede the cotton trade of the South, which was their main source of money. In 1861, the Union won the war.

During the 1860s, the influence of the Pope declined. Italy became a nation-state and overthrew the papal state, which became limited to the Vatican City.

In France, the French Republic comes into being via a bloody struggle in the 1870s. This is the third French republic and it will remain in power unit 1940. 

In Germany, Von Bismarck entered a struggle with the Church, which Bismarck, representing the state, mostly wins.

Slavery is finally abolished across the world, culminating with Brazil in the 1880s.

A man named Samuel Crowther is freed from slavery and becomes a bishop. He helps spread Christianity in England.

Serfdom also ended, abolished by Czar Alexander II.

Britain is seen as the leader of liberalism in 1860s. Men are granted the right to vote via bills passed in 1832 and 1867. Gladstone is a main figure in British reform and liberalism. British ideas are also at work in the US. Gladstone is against misrule in Turkey, drinking, House of Lords, and the Welsh Church. 

The rising of Charles Darwin is a significant influence in this era. The ideas of evolution is at odds with Orthodox religion. His ideas of evolution and survival of the fittest spread to other realms of ideas like economy, business, society, nations. People used/abused Darwin's ideas to explain phenomena like caucasians pushing natives out of their land.

People like to think of themselves as liberal and enlightened. The notion spread that every country needed a constitution. In Eruope, only Germany and Italy and one other state (?) don't have constitutions. Even Japan and the Ottoman Empire have constitutions.

Video 4: A Liberal Rainbow

Liberalism, as used in the Europeans in the 19th century:

• Against despotism
• Against mob rule (like what happened in Paris 1871)
• Differences between liberalism in 1830s and 1870s Paris.
• The people in the center somewhere between the above two points
• Against foreign rule

Economics was a branch of philosophy dealing in problems of commerce. Ideas about economics were tied up with ideas about political life. In economics too, liberalism opposes despotism and foreign rule. Free trade is supported. Excessive regulation is opposed. Education was encouraged. 

Associations and cooperatives are encouraged to increase economic strength and to create a social group or community or cooperative society. Such associations have a sort of constitution. They collect fees and work together to increase their market power, including loans and insurance. Trade and Farming. Farming cooperatives included a community life and not just farming business.

The government tolerates various religion.

The government begins thinking about extending human rights to women. John Stuart Mill posited that women deserved the same rights as men. Up until then, women were not seen as inferior but rather as having a different societal role. Women's rights became a hot topic in this period on both sides of the Atlantic. In the late 1800s enemies of liberalism arise (next vid).

Video 5: Enemies of Liberalism

Liberalism has its enemies. Czar Alexander III came to power after his predecessor was assassinated by revolutionaries. He is anti-liberal, anti-revolutionary and a representative of the anti-liberals.

What is the difference between an idea and an ideology? An idea turns into an ideology when it becomes a system of beliefs or doctrine (according to which people are encouraged to live their lives). Socialism, communism, capitalism: these ideologies are taking shape between 1870-1910.

Why are these ideas evolving into ideologies?

• The rise of the press. Newspapers are cheaper and ideas are circulated in the 100,000s. Headlines and illustrations are used. The messages in the newspaper are more concise, more effective, designed to keep everyone "informed".
• The rise of mass education. People are reading, in addition to the bible, magazines, newspapers, pamphlets, novels. People are debating what ought to be taught in schools. People need to be equipped with mass narratives according by which to judge what is going on around them. These mass narratives tell people to understand what they should think and feel about certain events, what can be done and should be done. Ideologies supply us with a set of answers to questions, shortcuts to making judgements and living in communities.
• Enemies. It's easier for people to unite around things they like rather than things they don't like. For the working class the enemy might be the factory owners. For the farmers it might be the middlepeople who are paying too-low fees for their produce.

Sectariam Liberalism

Different kinds of liberalism.

In general, liberalism is:

• In favor of the private sector and limiting the state
• In favor of the rise of larger businesses because they're against government regulations
• Against the rule of priests (Priestcraft)
• Against protectionism
• Protectionism limits importing base crops with the Corn Law and similar laws. Anti-protectionism means pro free trade

Socialism = Social Democracy is:

• Anti-clerical beliefs
• Concerned with the welfare of the group rather than the individual
• Think Liberals are too concerned with the individual
• Interested in the material well-being of the people
• Marxism
• Marx is born in Germany but spends most of his life in England
• Marx sees the divide between propertied people and non-propertied people who were taken advantage of by the propertied people
• Emphasis on material conditions and group rights

Liberalism is thus splintered and this harms the movement.

In addition, conservatism is seeing a rise and being redefined. Nobles and monarchs now identify themselves with elements of the nation state. Czar Alexander III and his successor do this. They honor tradition and shun a materialistic worldview.

Wagner is a German liberal composer. He sees himself as a rebel against the new, liberal establishment: against established Churches, the idealist ideals of Germany. Instead, he writes romantic, traditional work harking back to the traditional Germany.

The Catholic church tries to adapt to the liberal world, instigating practices that involve caring for the lower social classes. The Christian Social Union comes from social catholicism. It is a way of restoring relevance to Catholicism. 

Nationalist debates ensue: who really belongs to a certain nation? Who is a legitimate member of the French nation?  Who should be the citizens? This type of debate explodes in France. Dreyfuss, a Jew was framed for spying for the Germans. This caused debates about who represented France. There was lots of antisemitism that stated that Jews weren't truly devoted to the French nation and were financial opportunists. Emile Zola was a pro-Dreyfuss voice, but it was said that Jews were two-faced and puppeted by Germany.

Darwinism played into nationalism (Darwinism never supported non-botanical interpretations of his theories). Survival of the fittest is applied to nationalism, too: only the strongest nations will prevail.

Theories like those of Nietsche rose to dominance, that emphasized power and force as a necessary key component in governance.

In terms of political economy, countries reject free trade (USA, Germany) to protect its industries. Britain is the last power that stands for free trade. This is the 1870s and 1880s. A struggle for economic survival prevails, where nations see a need to protect their industries and the raw materials that feed these industries. Nations become aware that they need vast resources, and so turn outwards for these resources, a perspective reminiscent of 1700s trade-based colonialism. In 1877-8 the Russians fight against the Ottoman Empire. The Germans, headed by Otto von Bismarck, also have fights for dominance with their neighbors.

Nationalism becomes a mass ideology, with societies, leagues and other membership groups.

Racial beliefs also gain momentum, thanks to pseudo-science and a misinterpretation of Darwinism. Races were spoken about as ethnicities are discussed today: not black or white but rather Anglo-Saxon, Irish etc. People start believing that the strength of the nation relies on purity of race in pan-movements. Nations have to decide if unity is more important to them or purity. For instance, racism grows strong in the US, where the freedoms of blacks are grossly limited. This is one example of racism that is sweeping the world.

At the end of the 1800s, imperialism will sweep the world. Next time.